A recent remote sensing survey precisely located two historically significant sites on the fringe of the North Arabian Desert in Iraq (Figure 1) – al–Qadisiyyah and al–‘Udhayb (Deadman et al. 2025). Both were central to an Arab–Sasanian battle in the Early Islamic conquests and formed part of the Darb Zubaydah Hajj pilgrimage route.
Figure 1: location of the al–Qadisiyyah remote sensing survey area at the northern end of the Darb Zubaydah, on the edge of the North Arabian desert. Background: Bing Aerial imagery © Microsoft 2025.
This project aims to map and rapidly record these sites, combining drone photogrammetry and ground survey to augment our understanding of their military, religious and agricultural role in this historic landscape.
This will be achieved through:
• Drone and rapid ground survey of the main sites
• Recording the pottery and other finds (leaving all in situ)
• Generating drone orthomosaics and DEMs to analyse the sites and produce detailed plans
• Comparing this new data to published examples of Sasanian landscapes
• Investigating al–’Udhayb’s later function as a Darb Zubaydah way station
This will be achieved through:
• Drone and rapid ground survey of the main sites
• Recording the pottery and other finds (leaving all in situ)
• Generating drone orthomosaics and DEMs to analyse the sites and produce detailed plans
• Comparing this new data to published examples of Sasanian landscapes
• Investigating al–’Udhayb’s later function as a Darb Zubaydah way station
Background
Located at the boundary between Arabia and Mesopotamia, al–Qadisiyyah has major cultural and historical relevance to the region. The Battle of al–Qadisiyyah was a decisive victory in the Early Islamic conquests (Yusuf 1945). Umar, the second caliph, sent large forces to capture territory in Syria and Mesopotamia. After several preceding battles, the Muslim army under Sa’ad won a major victory over a much larger Sasanian army (Lewental 2011). Although victory at al–Qadisiyyah did not immediately bring the end of Sasanian rule in Mesopotamia, it did substantially weaken its position (Tabari in Friedmann 1992). Thus, al–Qadisiyyah opened the door for the Muslim conversion of Persia and the rest of the Sasanian Empire and ultimately the Arab domination of the Middle East (Morony 1976). The battle has huge
cultural significance to the Arab and Muslim world (Lewental 2014) – it is taught in schools, features in Arabic film and television, and lends its name to professional football clubs in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Jordan. The modern Iraqi governorate of al–Qadisiyyah was renamed in honour of the battle, alongside for example, Babylon, Nineveh and Wasit (Baram 1991: 61).
Located at the boundary between Arabia and Mesopotamia, al–Qadisiyyah has major cultural and historical relevance to the region. The Battle of al–Qadisiyyah was a decisive victory in the Early Islamic conquests (Yusuf 1945). Umar, the second caliph, sent large forces to capture territory in Syria and Mesopotamia. After several preceding battles, the Muslim army under Sa’ad won a major victory over a much larger Sasanian army (Lewental 2011). Although victory at al–Qadisiyyah did not immediately bring the end of Sasanian rule in Mesopotamia, it did substantially weaken its position (Tabari in Friedmann 1992). Thus, al–Qadisiyyah opened the door for the Muslim conversion of Persia and the rest of the Sasanian Empire and ultimately the Arab domination of the Middle East (Morony 1976). The battle has huge
cultural significance to the Arab and Muslim world (Lewental 2014) – it is taught in schools, features in Arabic film and television, and lends its name to professional football clubs in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Jordan. The modern Iraqi governorate of al–Qadisiyyah was renamed in honour of the battle, alongside for example, Babylon, Nineveh and Wasit (Baram 1991: 61).
The Darb Zubaydah is the Hajj pilgrimage route stretching between Kufa and Mecca, it was built under the Abbasid Caliphate utilising an existing trade route (Peterson 1994). Stretching over 1,300km of harsh desert terrain, its cleared pathways, regular pilgrim stations and water storage systems represent an incredible feat of construction (Wilkinson 1980). The vast majority of the route lies within modern Saudi Arabia, with only c. 200km of the northern portion crossing into the southwestern Iraqi desert (al–Rashid 1977). Contemporary Arab geographers, including Ibn Khordadbeh and Qudama, describe the route and stations of the Darb Zubaydah (de Goeje 1889), the first two listed after Kufa are al–Qadisiyyah and al–‘Udhayb. However, by the time that European travellers such as Blunt (1881), Hubert (Facey 2022) and Musil (1928) used the route, Khan Ruhba had become the penultimate stop. The Darb Zubaydah is currently a Tentative World Heritage Site that Saudi Arabia and Iraq are working to have inscribed over the next few years (UNESCO 2025). Filling in this gap on the original Darb Zubaydah route represents research of international significance.
Methodology
The sites of al–‘Udhayb and al–Qadisiyyah were identified by combining remote sensing and historical evidence. Especially compelling was the discovery of a six–mile double wall running between the sites, a large defensive trench and a likely Sasanian fortress, all described in historical accounts (Deadman et al. 2025). Keenly aware of the many threats facing Iraqi archaeology (Hopper et al. forthcoming), a rapid survey of these internationally significant sites was undertaken.
Originally, a week of combined drone and field survey was planned for the autumn of 2024, but the conflict in Gaza made this impossible. Instead, two days of drone survey were carried out by an Iraqi operator, followed by one day of ground survey when travel became possible in February 2025. Two further days of drone survey followed the fieldwork.
Initial orthomosaics were generated and examined prior to the ground survey. With little time available, the fieldwork largely consisted of photographing the main features. Finds were photographed in the field but not collected. More precise photogrammetry was carried out afterwards to generate more precise orthomosaics and accurate DEMs. These were utilised to produce site plans and illustrations.
Initial orthomosaics were generated and examined prior to the ground survey. With little time available, the fieldwork largely consisted of photographing the main features. Finds were photographed in the field but not collected. More precise photogrammetry was carried out afterwards to generate more precise orthomosaics and accurate DEMs. These were utilised to produce site plans and illustrations.
Results
Drone survey was carried out at five sites across the study area. Each was also recorded on the ground, along with nine other significant localities in the landscape (Figure 2).
Figure 2: fieldwork carried out as part of the project, including sites recorded on the ground and areas covered by drone survey. Background Bing Aerial imagery © Microsoft 2025.
Main features
Al–Qadisiyyah, also known as Tell Mudheef al–Hassan (Directorate General of Antiquities 1976: map 110), is a 2–3m high, irregular tell. The low mound is ~27ha, but the settlement wall encloses a larger area of ~42ha (Figure 3).
Al–Qadisiyyah, also known as Tell Mudheef al–Hassan (Directorate General of Antiquities 1976: map 110), is a 2–3m high, irregular tell. The low mound is ~27ha, but the settlement wall encloses a larger area of ~42ha (Figure 3).
Figure 3: KH9 Hexagon imagery (courtesy of the USGS), drone orthomosaic, drone DEM and combined VAT plot (cf. Kokalj and Somrak 2019) of the city of Qadisiyyah.
Al–Qadisiyyah lies immediately behind the central section of an 8km trench running parallel to the desert–floodplain boundary. Approximately 35m wide, with a subtle ditch profile, it has eroded upcasts on both sides. The eastern upcast is more substantial, likely once a fortified rampart, standing up to 2m high and 26m wide (Figure 4).
Figure 4: oblique drone photograph of the trench (looking north). Photo: Ali al–Gbur
A large fort, almost certainly the historical site of Qudays, lies ~1km south of al–Qadisiyyah along the trench. It is low–lying and challenging to see on the ground. Aerial imagery reveals a clear 190m square plan, with a 50x60m internal building towards the rear (seeFigure 6 below).
Al–‘Udhayb lies ~11km WSW of the battlefield sites. On the north bank of Wadi Talah is the main fort, the foundations of around a dozen smaller rectilinear buildings, and two large water cisterns. More building foundations lie on the other side of the road to the west. On the southern bank is a large rectangular brick structure ~30x23m and ~2.5m high. There is also two circular birkat, water storage ponds, ~32m and ~12m in diameter. Two square wells lie ~70m south of the main structure. Dozens of smaller rectilinear buildings foundations survive to the west and east (Figure 5).
Figure 5: annotated KH9 and drone orthomosaic of al–‘Udhayb.
Al–Qadisiyyah and al–‘Udhayb are connected by a double–walled feature that stretches for almost 10km (see Figure 2). A southern section was recorded in detail. Each earth walls stands to a maximum height of ~1m. In their current eroded state they are up to ~20m wide. It runs across the landscape in a gentle curve (see Figure 7 below). Other outlying sites in the wider Sasanian–Islamic landscape were also briefly recorded (see Figure 2). Another large square structure at Tell Ramadi bears a clear resemblance to Qudays. Later Islamic forts at Khan Ruhba and Qasr Ruhaim may originally have formed part of the same Sasanian military network. A possible Sasanian milecastle near Qasr Ruhaim is associated with a large spring, true of many fortified desert sites in the area. The northernmost surviving stretch of the Darb Zubaydah desert path was also recorded, consisting of a cleared walkway, 20–30m wide, with stones piled in cairns on the verges.
Pottery and other finds
Most of the sites yielded a similar assemblage of ceramics, dominated by turquoise glazed ware and an associated unglazed greenish buff ware. A coarse red–brown ware was less common. Green–blue glass and vitrified slag were also commonly observed. Qudays was unusual in producing no turquoise glaze. It was also the only site where Torpedo jar sherds were observed. While the pottery needs to be studied in more detail, a preliminary analysis suggests that the finds are consistent with an Early Islamic date, with perhaps small amounts of later material. As a Sasanian military site that does not seem to have been much occupied into the Early Islamic period , Qudays’ differing assemblage may be explained by chronological or functional factors.
Site condition
Tragically, many of these sites are in a very poor condition (Figure 6). Al–Qadisiyyah is in a relatively good state, with only some damage caused by irrigation channels and building on the site margins. Qudays was ploughed as part of a new pivot irrigation field in the autumn of 2024. A 5m–wide ditch has been dug through one of the best surviving sections of the defensive trench. Much of the double–wall has been flattened and incorporated into expanding arable farmland. The fort, rectangular building and wider landscape at al–‘Udhayb was severely quarried during the building of the modern road and bridge in the 1970s.
Figure 6: KH9, drone orthomosaic and VAT plot of Qudays (above) and al–‘Udhayb fort (below).
Overall, the landscape has been utterly transformed since the KH9 imagery was taken over fifty years ago, partly explaining how such an historically important collection of sites could remain undiscovered until now.
Discussion
This brief survey of these historic sites has done much to augment our understanding of this fascinating Sasanian and Early Islamic landscape. Clearly the area was heavily militarised during the Sasanian period – with forts at al–‘Udhayb, Qudays, and quite probably Tulul Ramadi, Qasr Ruhaym and Khan Ruhba. This seems to have been part of a much larger Sasanian frontier fortification system with a whole network of forts at the desert edge (Finster and Schmidt 2005; Lawrence and Wilkinson 2017). The trench/khandaq must certainly have played a major part in this system. It demonstrates a remarkable resemblance to the Gorgon Wall, the Sasanian northern frontier, which also consists of a substantial wall and ditch (Hopper 2017). What is less clear is whether the trench forms part of the Khandaq Shapur,
built in the fourth century (Morley 2017), and if so whether further stretches still exist to be found beyond this 8km section.
The double–wall between al–Qadisiyyah and al–’Udhayb is clearly of a very different character to the trench/khandaq. It could well be a canal redirecting seasonal flow from Wadi Talah, or possibly spring water with the many springs in the area only drying up relatively recently. It certainly represents a major investment with the two substantial earth bunds stretching for ~10km, but then ambitious water management systems are a signature of the Sasanian Empire (Adams 1965; Lawrence & Wilkinson 2017). Indeed, the feature looks very similar to canals associated with the Gorgan Wall (Wilkinson et al. 2013: 54) and the Mughan Steppe (Alizadeh 2021). It is also possible that the double–wall feature is in fact just a section of the Darb Zubaydah – an elaborate pathway rather than a canal, with the walls to protect the
route from being obscured by windblown desert sediments. The basic form does broadly resemble the stony desert route beyond al–‘Udhayb. More detailed investigation is needed to firmly establish the feature’s date and function, but parallels with the Gorgan Wall do look the most convincing for both the double–wall and trench (Figure 7).
The double–wall between al–Qadisiyyah and al–’Udhayb is clearly of a very different character to the trench/khandaq. It could well be a canal redirecting seasonal flow from Wadi Talah, or possibly spring water with the many springs in the area only drying up relatively recently. It certainly represents a major investment with the two substantial earth bunds stretching for ~10km, but then ambitious water management systems are a signature of the Sasanian Empire (Adams 1965; Lawrence & Wilkinson 2017). Indeed, the feature looks very similar to canals associated with the Gorgan Wall (Wilkinson et al. 2013: 54) and the Mughan Steppe (Alizadeh 2021). It is also possible that the double–wall feature is in fact just a section of the Darb Zubaydah – an elaborate pathway rather than a canal, with the walls to protect the
route from being obscured by windblown desert sediments. The basic form does broadly resemble the stony desert route beyond al–‘Udhayb. More detailed investigation is needed to firmly establish the feature’s date and function, but parallels with the Gorgan Wall do look the most convincing for both the double–wall and trench (Figure 7).
Figure 7: scaled KH9 and Corona imagery (courtesy of the USGS) of Qudays, the double–wall feature, Gorgan Wall defences and canal, and a northerly, stony desert section of the Darb Zubaydah.
Whether or not the double–wall was originally built as part of the Darb Zubaydah, certainly there are clear indications that much of the site of al–‘Udhayb was redeveloped as a pilgrim station during the Early Islamic period. The circular cisterns on the south bank show a striking resemblance to the birkat built all along the Darb Zubaydah (Petersen 1994). Moreover, the large rectangular ‘fortlet’ shows similarities to both medium–sized cisterns and to larger rectangular buildings often associated with the birkat (Figure 8). The two squares wells also appear similar to others found at DZ sites, often in close proximity to the cisterns. Moreover, the rectilinear ‘domestic’ structures at al–‘Udhayb are similar in
size and form to the less substantial structures at several DZ stations (Figure 9).
size and form to the less substantial structures at several DZ stations (Figure 9).
Figure 8: drone orthomosaic of al-‘Udhayb and Google Earth imagery (© 2025) of Darb Zubaydah parallels at Birkat Hamad, al-‘Amiyah and Birkat Sitt al-Zubaydah.
Figure 9: drone orthomosaic of al–‘Udhayb and Google Earth imagery (© 2025) of Darb Zubaydah parallels at Umm Qurun, Talhat and ‘Aqabah.
Conclusion
This project has succeeded in mapping and rapidly recording the Sasanian and Early Islamic sites of al–Qadisiyyah and al–‘Udhayb. By combining drone photogrammetry and ground survey it has augmented our understanding of the military, religious and agricultural landscape of this historically significant region.
This project has succeeded in mapping and rapidly recording the Sasanian and Early Islamic sites of al–Qadisiyyah and al–‘Udhayb. By combining drone photogrammetry and ground survey it has augmented our understanding of the military, religious and agricultural landscape of this historically significant region.
Clearly there is a great deal more work to be done to record, date and interpret these sites within the wider landscape. This work will lay the foundation for future survey. However, the accelerating pace of the destruction of this landscape is of major concern. Many of the sites have already been severely damaged and others are threatened. It is hoped that this
research will facilitate the protection of these globally significant sites.
research will facilitate the protection of these globally significant sites.
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge the generous support of IASA which funded this work. Thanks also to the British Academy, which indirectly funded our travel expenses through the “landscapes of Tell Ramihiah” project, and to the Arcadia Foundation as the main funder of the EAMENA project. We also wish to thank our friends and colleagues at the University of al–Qadisiyyah, the University of Kufa and the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage that made this
research possible.
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